Accounting Theory Half a Defence of Positive Accounting Research

The main aim of this report is to critically evaluate the article "Half a defence of positive   accounting research" by Dunmore (2010) in order to develop understanding in the area of   accounting research theory. On the basis of this article, positive   accounting research can be defined as a research which is used to successfully complete broader intellectual scientific research projects with the purpose to understand the cause and effect relationships in the world under a study (Dunmore, 2010). Positive   accounting is considered in this article as a research program, which is aimed to develop human behaviour's casual explanations in accounting settings. The report provides a summary of the article in terms of the main arguments including aim, overall findings, and its theoretical contribution and arguments. It also discusses the value of hypothesis and its relationship with the literature review. It also identifies and discusses the theoretical framework of the paper contributing to the research element. Moreover, it also presents the article's significance and limitations by discussing methodology used and research conclusion that is justified by the methodology, impact of the limitations on the article's significance, and findings. In last, it summarizes the main points by depicting the implications of the critique. The main aim of the article is to examine the ontology (system) and epistemology (philosophy) of a positive accounting research program. It is found from the article that the logic of statistical hypothesis testing while superficially correspondent to Popper's falsification criterion is not so strong. The main argument behind this is that falsification is not able to perform its normal function because many assumptions must come in the theoretical   anticipation and falsifying the anticipation does not explain which assumption is wrong (Dunmore, 2010). It means that the theory cannot actually be falsified. In addition, the author also found that although the potential of the broad positivist research program is strong enough, however it is lowered by insufficiencies in the practice. For instance, some common problems were identified including 'building casually theoretical models to be tested, excessive trust on the logic of hypothesis testing, a lack of interest in the parameters' numerical value, the use of theory as a way to examine qualitative data rather than testing of the explanations, and insufficient replication to justify assurance in accepted findings that affect the use of this program' (Dunmore, 2010). The researcher also argued that the current way of using positive research in accounting is not effective and it is largely incompetent to attain scientific objectives. But at the same time, the researcher also argued that the use of 'Kuhn's description of normal' science can be quite effective in the context of positive accounting research. Thus, it can be stated that this article significantly contributes in developing knowledge towards the effective utilization of positive research program in accounting studies so that better results can be produced and objectives can be attained. It can also be stated that it is essential to use specific models to test theories, better measurement, use of parameters, and extensive replication for designing effective quantitative positive research. As a part of intellectual research project, the author developed four hypothesis. The first hypothesis is   related with the presence of a world, which is independent to the people's imagination. It is because people do not develop them and therefore, events in such situations cannot be controlled by individuals. The second hypothesis is that in such a kind of world, events have causes, which are also a part of the world (Dunmore, 2010). It is the reason that events are not completely random as well as the results of intervention from the outside world. The third hypothesis is that there is potential for general people to attain fairly dependable and authentic information about events in the world through a careful observation. It also indicates to the importance of observation, which is mainly used for understanding the world and its causes as event. But at the same time, it is also possible that people can be wrong in their observations as observations are not completely disconne cted to the world. Lastly, the main purpose of intellectual research project is to use observation to develop knowledge about the world, mainly in the case of causation (Dunmore, 2010). Additional, individuals attempt mental models because these help in correctly mapping the casual processes that take place in the world. All these hypothesis are valuable because these provide a background to successfully conduct an intellectual enquiry. In addition, these are also valuable to prove different theories in the context of positive accounting research. In addition, the results of this article developed based on these hypothesis can be valuable to enhance the relevancy of positive accounting research. Moreover, in an intellectual research, it is also assumed that non worldly things such as gods and spirits cause an event in this world (Dunmore, 2010). But, concurrently, there is disagreement in relation to the thing that cause an event. Similarly, in this article, the role of human behaviour in the context of accounting research is discussed. The author is intended to resolve the issue that how the current practice of accounting research fails to meet the requirements to execute the research program in a successful manner. Through this article, the researcher is not affirming the truth of these hypothesis, but simply asking for a 'willing suspension of disbelief' to allow their discussion. It also indicates that these hypothesis are developed by the researcher on the basis of the literature review to clear the doubt about the truth in the context of positive accounting research. In addition, the author developed these hypothesis for this article in a tentative and conscious way by considering human experiences and value with the review of available literature. The literature review in this article is also supportive to provide sufficient proves in the context of falsification and hypothesis testing as well as the use of models and frameworks to ensure the proper utilization of positive accounting research (Dunmore, 2010). Overall, it can be stated that by developing knowledge regarding existing accounting research theories and models, literature review helps in building hypothesis for this enquiry. In this article, the author reviews the wider intellectual project in a brief manner with its system and philosophical assumptions to understand the significance as well as deficiencies of positive accounting research. The author used different theories to examine the importance and inadequacies of positive accounting research. For instance, the use of theory by Kuhn (1970) suggested that "positive research may be a paradigm which is optimal for solving accepted puzzles" (Dunmore, 2010). Concurrently, the example of positive accounting research also provides a theoretical framework for this article. For instance, through the views of Watts and Zimmerman (1978, 1986, 1990), Dunmore (2010) clarifies that the concept of "positive accounting theory" is more extensive than their particular theory. It encourages the author to find the ways that can be used to enhance the effectiveness of accounting research. In addition, the author also used a theoretical framework as 'fundamental model of rational self-interested human behaviour' suggested by Fukuyama (1995, p. 13) (Dunmore, 2010). It shows that human behaviour is not capable to defended in quantitative terms. Concurrently, it is evaluated that this model is correct about 80% of time. It is also the reason that behaviour in accounting context is examined by some accounting research without assuming rational behaviour. For example, judgements by the audit experts, use of discretion by the managers in performance evaluation systems, etc (Dunmore, 2010). At the same time, Popper's theory of falsification and hypothesis testing is also an important part of the theoretical framework of the chosen article. Scientific researchers involve the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data and Popper's criterion is helpful to understand the philosophy of science at all (Michael, 2015). The use of this theory is beneficial to perform positive accounting research in a scientific context. In this article, the criteria of falsification is applied to evaluate the possibility of developing falsified principles within the positive accounting research. As per the falsification criterion, a theory can only be scientific when the variables can be developed in terms of principles (Baruk, 2008). Moreover, audit-complexity and audit-fee are other parts of theoretical framework in this article, which are used to discuss the importance of measurement in comparison of the testing. In order to enhance the effectiveness of positive accounting research, it is essential to define and measure the concepts so that the testing can be made more reliable and valid (Mintz, 2013). In this article, through the use of principles and assumptions, normal science theory of Kuhn is discussed. This theory shows that to make sure about the presence of scientific nature in a theory, it is important to discuss common paradigm. Moreover, normal science theory states that success of each theory is not critical due to the importance of problem-solving science nature. This theory also promotes the organization of in-depth study with the adoption of a puzzle solving approach for conducting scientific enquiry (Biondi and Zambon, 2013). At the same time, this theory is considered in this article as an impo rtant way to identify the limitations of positive accounting research. On the basis of the review of the chosen article, some implications and limitations are identified. The key strength of the article is related to the method of data collection as it enabled the researcher to define different models and theories in the context of positive accounting research (Hoque, 2006). Moreover, it also supported the researcher to justify the arguments for deficiencies in the practice of current positive accounting research. In addition to this, the inclusion of literature from qualitative and quantitative research perspective, accounting, and auditing also enabled the author to design a suitable theoretical framework for this study (Dunmore, 2010). The use of Popper's criterion was also significant to learn about the process of hypothesis testing. Concurrently, the author also found this theory's limitation as it does not include any aspect to invent a new theory. The author also discussed the importance of creativity and imagination process to enhance the streng th of positive accounting research. The consideration of ontology and epistemology of positive research by discussing interpretive and inductive aspects as well as human behaviour, rational conduct, and normal science theory are also effective to enhance the validity of this article (Wolk, Dodd, and Rozycki, 2016). In addition, it can also be discussed that the author described the theoretical conclusions from the research. For instance, the author discussed that the example of positive research in accounting has no means exhaustive, but he effectively defined that the concept of positive accounting research is large enough than the theory. The author also concluded that 'any research aiming to understand the nature and causes of particular accounting phenomena, even if those causes lie in non-rational aspects of human psychology, qualifies as positive and scientific accounting research' (Dunmore, 2010). In their views, the accounting phenomena is caused by 'the operation of rational self-interest among parties who interact through express or implied contracts in various types of organization'. The author acknowledged the limitation of this theory as Dunmore (2010) clearly discussed in this article that Watts and Zimmerman's theoretical model does not draw appreciably all the areas of positive accounting research. But, at the same time, this theory is significant to make accounting choices by the managers of the company, reporting and pricing decisions by auditors, standard setting decisions by the politicians and regulators, and expert advice offered by the academics (Mattessich, 2007). Thus, it can be stated that the author provided effective theoretical conclusions from the research that are also justified by the methodology.   For example, the author provided recommendations in the article for quantitative positive research, which enhance the validity and reliability of the res earch outcomes. In order to summarize the above discussion, it can be concluded that this article includes adequate discussion of different models and theories, which are effective to develop knowledge regarding the positive accounting research. In addition, it can also be stated that the recommendations provided in this research are also effective to successfully complete a scientific quantitative research study.   In addition, the researchers can avoid insufficiencies such as building of theoretical model, lack of measurement, and hypothesis testing model in order to make sure about the success of accounting research. Baruk, I. (2008). Causality I. A Theory of Energy, Time and Space, Volume 2. Lulu.com. Biondi, Y. and Zambon, S. (2013). Accounting and Business Economics: Insights from National Traditions. UK: Routledge. Dunmore, P.V. (2010). Half a Defence of Positive Accounting Research. Retrieved From: https://www.massey.ac.nz/~pvdunmor/HalfaDefence.pdf Hoque, Z. (2006). Methodological Issues in Accounting Research: Theories, Methods and Issues. Spiramus Press Ltd. Mattessich, R. (2007). Two Hundred Years of Accounting Research. UK: Routledge. Michael, M. (2015). Evolution by Natural Selection: Confidence, Evidence and the Gap. USA: CRC Press. Mintz, S. (2013). Accounting for the Public Interest: Perspectives on Accountability, Professionalism and Role in Society. Germany: Springer Science & Business Media. Wolk, H.I., Dodd, J. L., and Rozycki, J.J. (2016). Accounting Theory: Conceptual Issues in a Political and Economic Environment. USA: SAGE Publications. 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How equilibrium occurs using the aggregate supply (AS) and aggregate Essay

How equilibrium occurs using the aggregate supply (AS) and aggregate demand (AD) framework - Essay Example This paper describes the occurrence of the equilibrium using aggregate supply and aggregate demand curves, and the fluctuation of real GDP around the potential GDP with reference to the economy in UK. Aggregate Demand Aggregate demand curve represents the desired spending, consumer behaviour and the buying of equipment by governments and foreigners. The aggregate demand rises with the increase in expenditure caused by increased optimism by the households on lifetime incomes and increased need for the product. The combined monetary assets and the decrease in interest rates stimulate the desire to spend by the firms and households. Low interest rates reduce the saving reward and borrowing costs for households, but for businesses, this reduces the borrowing costs for investing in equipment and plant (James, Walte and James 2006, p. 777-790). The aggregate demand curve slopes downwards due to the fixed nominal value for some assets, particularly the money itself. The increase in prices f or the goods with no changes in money leads to the real value of money balances declining and this result to decreased liquidity. The rise in prices increases the demand for dollars in financing the transactions. Short liquidity to the monetary assets results when nominal dollars’ supply does not change. ... Prices and output are inversely related. Shifts in aggregate demand curve Aggregate demand curve changes due to wealth effects like the money supply, interest rate effects, and the net exports effects. The changes are represented by shifts in aggregate demand curves either to the right, or to the left. A right shift in aggregate demand curve (AD1 to AD2) indicates an increase in GDP at the same price level for the quantity demanded. A left shift (AD1 to AD3) indicates a decreased GDP for the quantity demanded at the same price levels (Justiniano & Claudio 2011, p. 89). Shifts in aggregate demand curve Source:http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Aggregate-Demand-AD-Curve.topicArticleId-9789,articleId-9737.html Aggregate Supply Aggregate Supply (AS) model measures volume of the goods and services produced by an economy at given overall price level. The AS curve summarizes the production behaviour for the side markets, and it slopes upwards. The Aggregate Supply curve may be horizonta l or vertical depending on the conditions (James, Walte and James 2006, p. 777-790). The curve is inelastic in the long run and elastic in the short run. Therefore, when the long-run curve is vertical, the return is to natural output level as the equilibrating forces pull back to vertical long-run curve. The upward facing slope is caused by changes in firm prices due to the increased demand. In the presence of menu costs, firms raise the prices or increase the production, resulting to aggregate increase in both output and prices (Berrah and Cliville 2007, p.709-719). Graph 2: Aggregate Supply Curve Source: http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Aggregate-Supply-AS-Curve.topicArticleId-9789,articleId-9738.html The vertical axis in aggregate supply curve represents the

Teacher Professional Development and Student Achievement Gains Research Paper

Teacher Professional Development and Student Achievement Gains - Research Paper Example There are many options in developing the skills and knowledge of teachers. The most appropriate approaches to professional development aim at gaining high student performance. The research conducted on the professional development of teachers focus on the personal traits of teachers and classroom activities. Research helps to find the appropriate way of developing teachers so that students achieve high performance. This paper gives an analytical review of the teacher professional development, which is aim at increasing student learning and achievement. The activities and content, which must be included in teacher professional development, include student learning, skills of the teacher and the subject matter (Jogthong & Pimolbunyong, 2009). There are two categories of studies into the professional development and student achievement. The first category mainly focuses on the traditional teaching skills of teachers. The ability of a teacher in allocating adequate time for lessons is th e area of assessment so that the teacher adequately develops his or her ability to allow sufficient time for student learning (Frampton & Vaughn, 2003, p. 292). The development of the teacher therefore should focus on enabling the teacher to be able to apply critical thinking and taking all learning factors into consideration in allocating time for lessons. For example, the teacher should be able to allocate time for lessons depending on the level of education, abilities of students, and the nature of the subject he is teaching. In teacher professional development, the ability of the teacher to provide vivid demonstrations in class is an important consideration. This will enable the development of the skills of the teacher towards ensuring that he is able to provide illustrations and demonstration in class so that the understanding is a priority. This is more important in elementary education where learners require instruction aids such as photographs as a way of enhancing leaning a nd student achievement (Ross & Bruce, 2007). The content and activities, which constitute teacher professional development, also include determination of the ability of the teacher on the student comprehension or understanding during learning. For successful achievement of learning by students, learners must comprehend what the content of the lesson (Jogthong & Pimolbunyong, 2009). Assumption of the teacher that students have understood the content of the lesson may be wrong. As a result, the professional development of elementary school teachers must enhance the skills of the teacher and knowledge as a way of ensuring that he is able to know whether students comprehend the information on the topic of discussion. This will promote student learning because a professionally developed teacher will be able to know the areas of the class topic, which he should repeat or demonstrate further to enhance student understanding (Frampton & Vaughn, 2003). In professional development of teachers , the skills of the teacher in maintaining the attention are also part of the enhancement of the skills of the teacher (Spencer, 2007, 211). Students in the elementary school are easily distracted. The teacher should be able to maintain the attention of students if the achievement of the leaning objectives is to be possible. The decisions on the success of professional development should therefore emanate from the ability of the teacher to ensure that students focus on the lesson. If there are distractions, the teacher shou

Political Spectrum Project Essay -- Politics Magazine Articles Essays

Political Spectrum Project Introduction I have gathered four articles from the New York Times newspaper, which is a Liberal newspaper, and broken them down into a summary and a short understanding of what makes the article Liberal. The four articles include a political cartoon, an editorial piece, a national article, and an additional article. Gun Battle Halts Mideast Cease-fire International / additional article. During the daylight hours of October 2, the cease-fire between Israel and Palestinians came to a sudden and violent standstill. The Gaza Strip and several Arab towns inside of Israel was the scene for this horrible event. Gunfire sent hundreds of Palestinians civilians running off the streets and seeking shelter and safety from guns and other arms fire. Israeli military officers began firing their yesterday. This event was triggered by Arab protesters who claimed that the Israelis had provoked the by failing to pull back there armored vehicles and riot officers from key junctions in the Gaza Strip. By the evening, three more Arabs had been killed bringing the total death count to fifty-four people. In this article as you read, you can start to get the since there are two sides to the conflict. One the Palestinians and Israeli. The article gives a bias to favor the Palestinians people over the Israeli government. The Palestinians were marching against the Israeli police who were supposed to pull back from the Arab community last week. Armed military tanks and helicopters met the protesters. Most of the protesters on had only had rocks and small arms to protect themselves. This article is a wonderful example of Liberalism. The utter disdain, which the article shows for the Israelis, is evident, â€Å"After failing to secure concessions from us at the peace table, Barak has decided to negotiate with bullets† says the article. The pursuit of happiness, this is a common liberal view. The Palestinians were only pursuing happiness and freedom from the Israelis military when they fired upon them. The Arab people are persecuted in the Israeli run Gaza Strip for their religion. Th is pursuit for happiness is a fundamental part of Liberalism. Gore Vs. Bush. Round 1 Editorial / Opinion piece This opinion piece about how Gore and Bush are perceived after last Tuesdays debate. A writer explains why Gore won round one of the debates. The... ...to look like night and day against each other. Of all the contentious issues in their debate Tuesday night, none underscored the differences between Vice President Al Gore and Gov. George W. Bush more than taxes. Repeating himself relentlessly, Gore asserted that the Texas governor's proposed tax cuts would award more money to the wealthiest 1 percent of taxpayers than the amounts Bush would set aside for education, health and defense combined. Bushes tax cut looks like something a monarch would give to his nobles. This overwhelmingly show Bush as a conservative Bush accused the vice president of using "fuzzy numbers," but never refuted the basic charge. In fact, â€Å"Gore's formula was on target, illustrating a stark choice between the two candidates' approaches on the tax issue.† Supporting Gore and showing the fact the Bush has a very high tax cut of the wealthy is would show the liberal thinking for the writer. Gore the understood liberal was praised for pointing that figure out. Politics have not changed very much since the 19th century but the faces of opinion have changed, now liberal and conservative try to convince the people that they are working in your best interest.

Letter To My Future Self Essay

I hope that time has been kind to you. I hope your high school experience was what you hoped it would be, and I hope you lived it up in college. I can’t sit here and say I know what growing up was like, because I don’t. I also can’t say that from what my parents have told me that it was easy. I know your plans in life were to go far, and reach for the stars and I have no doubt that you haven’t done that. I hope that where you are right now, is where you want to be, and if it isn’t, don’t give up, keep pushing. Remember you are the only person who can control your happiness. Depending on what age you are reading this, hopefully you have a special boy in your heart, whether it be the ginger you spent your 8th, freshman, and sophomore years hung up on, or it be someone new. I hope they give you their best, and nothing less, because thats all you deserve. see more:future me essay Hopefully you have the career you wanted, which sophomore year you were interested in pharmaceutical work, who knows where you have ended up, but hopefully you are more decisive than you were back then. As a child, you had dreams of going big. You never would settle for ordinary. The first time you got a B+ on your report card in 4th grade you cried, because that was your first B+ ever. Those were the best times, yet you’ve probably experienced many more within the time frame you wrote this letter. You wanted to be a model at one point, and you used to love when dad painted your nails and dressed up with you and let you do his hair.

Characteristics of Aquatic Life

There are thousands of species of marine life, from tiny zooplankton to enormous whales. Each is adapted to its specific habitat. Throughout the oceans, marine organisms must deal with several problem we avoid on land: Regulating salt intakeObtaining oxygenAdapting to water pressureDealing with wind, waves, and changing temperaturesGetting enough light There are many ways marine life survive in this environment that is so different from ours. Salt Regulation Fish can drink salt water, and eliminate the salt through their gills. Seabirds also drink salt water, and the excess salt is eliminated via the nasal, or â€Å"salt glands† into the nasal cavity, and then is shaken, or sneezed out by the bird. Whales don’t drink salt water, instead, they get the water they need from the organisms they eat. Oxygen Fish and other organisms that live underwater can take their oxygen from the water, either through their gills or their skin. Marine mammals need to come to the water surface to breathe, which is why the deep-diving whales have blowholes on top of their heads, so they can surface to breathe while keeping most of their body underwater. Whales can stay underwater without breathing for an hour or more because they make very efficient use of their lungs, exchanging up to 90% of their lung volume with each breath, and also store unusually high amounts of oxygen in their blood and muscles when diving. Temperature Many ocean animals are cold-blooded (ectothermic) and their internal body temperature is the same as their surrounding environment. Marine mammals, however, have special considerations because they are warm-blooded (endothermic), meaning they need to keep their internal body temperature constant no matter the water temperature. Marine mammals have an insulating layer of blubber (made up of fat and connective tissue) under their skin. This blubber layer allows them to keep their internal body temperature about the same as ours, even in the cold ocean. The bowhead whale, an arctic species, has a blubber layer that is 2-feet-thick. Water Pressure In the oceans, water pressure increases 15 pounds per square inch for every 33 feet of water. While some ocean animals do not change water depths very often, far-ranging animals such as whales, sea turtles, and seals sometimes travel from shallow waters to great depths several times in a single day. How can they do it? The sperm whale is thought to be able to dive more than 1 1/2 miles below the ocean surface. One adaptation is that lungs and rib cages collapse when diving to deep depths. The leatherback sea turtle can dive to over 3,000 feet. Its collapsible lungs and flexible shell help it stand the high water pressure. Wind and Waves Animals in the intertidal zone do not have to deal with high water pressure  but need to withstand the high pressure of wind and waves. Many marine invertebrates and plants in this habitat have the ability to cling onto rocks or other substrates so they are not washed away  and have hard shells for protection. While large pelagic species like whales and sharks may not be impacted by rough seas, their prey can be moved around. For example, right whales prey on copepods, which can get spread to different areas during a time of high wind and waves. Light Organisms that need light, such as tropical coral reefs and their associated algae, are found in shallow, clear waters that can be easily penetrated by sunlight. Since underwater visibility and light levels can change, whales do not rely on sight to find their food. Instead, they locate prey using echolocation and their hearing. In the depths of the ocean abyss, some fish have lost their eyes or pigmentation because they are just not necessary. Other organisms are bioluminescent, using light-giving bacteria or their own light-producing organs to attract prey or mates.

The Influence of Gender in American Popular Culture Essay

Popular Culture in the form of media does not always do a fair job of reflecting accurate characteristics of men and women. Society has added to this by creating what is known as gender roles among men and women. They are like a type of social guidelines which men and women follow in order to be accepted by todays society. Although this was designed with the best intentions it can have negative results. There are many examples of gender roles playing a part in our society. Television serves as one of the most common voices for the social guidelines; it reflects dominant social values to its audience which in turn reinforces them by presenting them as the norm. Television implies that its a mans world buy usually placing men†¦show more content†¦Reality TV has taken the gender roles to a new level. These shows are even more unrealistic and unachievable by todays young adults. 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